ࡱ> M Zbjbj==  WWVl%%%%&|u5T(T(T(T(T(T(T(T(4444444$+6 K8b5T(T(T(T(T(5,T(T(/5,,,T(*T(T(4,T(4,,//T(H( $%~)P//tE50u5/8+8/,from: Pitts, Carl. E. (ed). Operant Conditioning in the Classroom (1971). pp. 239-251. 20 / Administration and Precision Teaching ERIC HAUGHTON This article was included for the value it may have for future administrators interested in innovation. The thesis here is the necessity for precise data in the decision-making process. Too often, argues the author, educational decisions are made on the basis of intuitive, biased, impressionistic, anecdotal data, which are especially inadequate when the decision involves the lives of children. This article raises a number of questions about present-day practices and considers redesigning the current decision-making process. Educational decisions have wide-reaching effects on personnel and pupils. Therefore precise information is required (a) as the basis for change and (b) to record the effects of administrative changes. Direct records of classroom behavior, taken by the teacher, charted by the youngsters themselves, and analyzed by the teacher and advisers can improve the Source: Eric Haughton, "Administration and Precision Teaching" Research Training Paper No. 5 (Kansas City: Bureau of Child Research Laboratory, University of Kansas Medical Center, 1967). Reprinted by permission of the author and the Bureau of Child Research. This research was supported by the United States Office of Education and the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness when the author was a trainee with the Bureau of Child Research (Grant NB-05362-06). This paper was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Education 371 (Spring 1966), under the guidance of Dr. J. O. Smith. The author thanks Dr. Smith and the members of the seminar for their contributions to this paper. The author is now a specialist in precision teaching with the Eugene School District No. 4J, Eugene, Oregon. 239 241 Eric Haughton Administration and Precision Teaching 240 efficiency of educational planning. Examples of those records included in this paper indicate the crucial part such records can play in improving education by wise administrative recommendations and suggestions. Behavior Management: Stimuli For example, a teacher may report that a child is disturbing the classroom by talking out without permission. In such a situation the teacher's equation would be: Precise Language Educational administrators have to make decisions that involve the economy and the efficiency of school systems. These decisions often have implications at various levels. The administrator's responsibilities can be broken into three components: Stimuli, Responses, and Consequences.1 The S-R-C components of a principal's behavior would look like this: Stimuli Responses Consequences State Dept. Meet requirements "OK"? School Board Run school Salary, "O.K." ? Superintendent Direct "OK," well-run school Department Head Direct "OK," well-run school Parents Activate interest Offer educational alternatives Parent participation Teachers Supervise Advise Quality teaching Effective management Pupils Activate Discipline Expanded opportunities Qualified graduates This listing is incomplete, as I have limited the stimuli analyzed to some of the people a principal has above or below him in the typical administrative situation. Mention of the typically pyramidal hierarchy raises the topic of administrative structure. Several writers have gone into the issue of reorganizing the structure of education (Carlson, et. al., 1965; Griffiths, 1959; Meals, 1967). This major problem has brought about a variety of proposals. An alternative is that an efficient educational system based on precise language and methods of data collection is possible for the contemporary educational system. Listing different aspects under the S-R-C simplifies the analysis of shared and dissimilar components. The degree to which components are shared often determines the outcome of administrative decisions.  (1) (Teacher) S1 Pupil talks out occasionally. R1 "Be quiet." C? or, as the problem becomes more serious: (2) (Teacher) S2 High rate of talking out. r1 "be quiet!" C?   R2 Complains to principal. C? When the teacher doesn't have a rate record of the target behavior (talking-out), the principal hears only the teacher's anecdotal, highly impressionistic report of the pupil's disruptive target behavior. He cannot tell if this really is a problem, or if the teacher is oversensitive or possibly dislikes the pupil. The principal's components in this situation are: (3) (Principal) S2 Complaining teacher. R2 "Not really a problem." C?   3 "She is just oversensitive." C?   4 "She dislikes the pupil." C? None of the principal's responses are acting on the problem. Therefore the consequences are difficult to specify. On the other hand, suppose the teacher took a frequency count of the disruptive behavior and plotted the rate. Then the teacher's components would appear: (4) (Teacher) S1 Pupil talks out. R1 "BE QUIET." C?   2 Takes frequency count. C?   3 Plots data. Cgraph If the teacher takes the graph to the principal, the formula then becomes: 1 This equation was developed by Ogden R. Lindsley, Ph.D., Professor of Education, University of Kansas. It is identified as is-does and was developed in some detail by Lindsley (1964). The equation has been refined considerably and is now available in an updated form through the Curriculum Bulletin Series, School of Education, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon.  (5) (Principal) S1 Graph of disruptive behavior. R1 Evaluate rate. c1 Sees problem clearly.   2 Advise remediation or remove pupil from class. C2 Helps teacher (by reduction in target behavior's rate).  Eric Haughton 243 Administration and Precision Teaching 242 (1) (Principal) St Teacher with problem child. R1 "I wonder if she knows how to teach." C1 ?"l have to make some decision." (2) (Teacher) St Gerry hitting. R1 Tries to manage. 2 Worries about problem. Cl No effect. 2 ? The teacher can present data designed to clarify certain aspects of classroom problems for the principal. Moreover, teachers can refine and expand these data and show academic performance rate on the target child, as well as the entire class, indicating the academic deceleration produced by the disruptive behavior. By having such precise, objective information at hand, the principal can act decisively. These five brief precise formulations of this "talk-out" project do not guarantee innovation, nor do they guarantee remediation. However, the stimulus analysis suggests that the principal will act very differently when presented graphical data instead of anecdotal information. Charted classroom data focus attention on a specific problem and reduce inappropriate social and interpersonal behavior. Presenting graphs to parents also demonstrates the effects of teaching or new procedures mom clearly than mere verbal description. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Gerry is a second-grade pupil. His case will demonstrate the techniques described so far and illustrate the foregoing points. Gerry used to hit his peers several times a day. When the teacher began to count, the frequency of hitting ranged between 15 and 30 hits a day. He hit in lines, at lunch, during classroom activities, and on the schoolyard. To record Gerry's hitting rate, teachers involved in each activity used a wrist counter to record these events. His regular teacher, Carole, and others who supervised Gerry counted each hit. They also continued to handle the problems as they had in the past. After a few days of precise recording and rate computation, we devised an individualized program. The teacher, after checking with the parents to insure their cooperation, began to call the parents after each school session to report the number of hits that occurred during the day. Within five days Gerry stopped hitting. Follow-up records show no return of hitting nor the development of any other inappropriate behavior. The working chart is presented in Figure 1 and also indicates the exact probability of the change occurring by chance. This rate deceleration could have occurred by chance only once in 1,000 times. The equation for this project was: (1) (Teacher) Sl Gerry hits. R1 Record and chart. C1 Chart of project.   R2 Call parents. C2 ? (2) (Gerry) S1 Peers. Rt Plays. C1 Teacher reports appropriate acts.   R2 Hits. C2 Teacher reports hitting frequency.  Figure 1. Rapid and permanent deceleration of hitting peers after the teacher phoned the count home each day after school. One other function of this project included changing the principal's opinion of Carole. Gerry had been so disruptive that questions were raised as to her classroom management capabilities. Concrete and objective information from this project helped Carole demonstrate her management skills. The equations for the principal and teacher might be like this: Before Project: Eric Haughton Administration and Precision Teaching 244 245 (1) (Principal) S1 Teacher has solved problem. R1 "This teacher knows how to teach." Ct Revised estimate of teacher.  2 Gerry doesn't hit.   (2) (Teacher) S1 Gerry doesn't hit. Rl Reports appropriate acts to parents. Cl Better peer relationships.  2 Acknowledgment of good teaching from principal. 2 Continues good work. 2 Improvement in students and fair evaluation. INNOVATION THROUGH PRECISION The preceding projects were analyzed using is-does equation s. A different symbol represents each behavioral component for each person in the analysis. This type of analytic tool is useful to describe complex interactions and aids the interpretation of available data. I have referred to the type of data that complements an is-does analysis and will describe how to collect these data in the next section. Exactly what does the analytic tool is-does contribute to our understanding of innovation? In the talk-out project, I placed emphasis on the analysis of stimuli available to a principal and teacher. When a typical educational system is broken into major administrative or managerial units, their relations as stimuli become clear. Table 1  Perhaps innovation from upper levels is difficult because stimuli have to sift down through so many people. Conversely, if the teacher should attempt to innovate looking upward through the maze of S-R-C equations, she may be completely decelerated. The teacher can try to introduce change by going up through the administrative maze, but this structure may not accelerate a teacher's innovative behavior. RESPONSES The teacher may report disruptive behavior quantitatively or anecdotally. A charted quantitative record will be accepted while unsubstantiated whining or bitching about a pupil may be interpreted as a teacher's "personality deficit." If the teacher's response to the pupil who has been disruptive in the class includes precise performance-rate data on the other children showing marked rate of deceleration in academic areas, the administrator's response will be rapid. He will move to decelerate the disturbance and to accelerate the other pupils' performance rate. CONSEQUENCES In the classroom management example, accurate and precise stimuli-charted records of behavior-elicited effective administrative behavior. These stimuli also clarified and enhanced the consequences. Note that consequences could not be specified in several equations. Our ignorance of consequences is a major block to innovation. Consequences are not necessarily shared by those at different educational levels, but increasing the number of shared stimuli and responses increases the number of shared consequences. Consequences are recognized as an important issue in administrative innovation. Griffiths (1959) refers to anticipated and unanticipated consequences of administrative decisions. Urwick (1957) treats the problem of motivation in detail. None of these writers, however, executes a precise or functional analysis of consequences that follow responses and either accelerate desired reponses or decelerate undesired responses. Direct Recording Precise data collection is a major issue in education today. The main component in our systemthe pupilis not adequately or precisely represented. There are no continuous and direct daily records of pupil performance so the effects of various procedures and modification attempts exist only as the impressionistic accounts of pupil behavior. In other production areas accurate records are kept daily. For example, industrial administrators clarify their targets, stimuli, and behaviors through precise, quantitative records. When production begins to lag, the shop manager does not rely on the foreman's impressions. He goes to the production record. Unfortunately, there is no such appeal to daily and accurate quantitative records in most of today's classrooms. Over three fourths of the books on school administration I read Administration and Precision Teaching 246 Eric Haughton 247  covered such topics as "clarifying the problem." Although Griffiths (1959; in Miles, 1964) writes about operationism and observational methods, he makes no specific recommendations on appropriate classroom direct-recording techniques. Therefore, educational and particularly classroom information tends to be impressionistic, vague, and, consequently, highly personal. Our usual classroom information is a mixture of teacher-pupil behavior rather than a precise, quantitative, and fair representation of pupil behavior. In fact, no reports (including over fifteen articles and over eight books) I read referred to or employed directly recorded data. Many studies used attitudinal scales (Kendall's report in Miles, 1964). Some studies reported final grades. Several studies used check lists and similar evaluations of pupils by teachers or administrators. Curriculum Modification Supervisors often locate new educational materials and wish to have them implemented. While the supervisor's formula or equation is simple: (6) (Supervisor) S1 New materials. r1 Buy. C1?   2 Give to teacher. 2 Improve instruction. the equation for the teacher is not: (7) (Teacher) S1 New materials. Rl Read instructions. C1?   2 Learn new procedures. 2?   3 Implement: a) schedule b) introduce to the class. 3 Better learning. Here is a shared stimulus, i.e., the new materials. Yet there is little or no response required from the supervisor. On the other hand, the teacher must well be prepared before introducing the material to the class, so her response requirements are maximal while the supervisor's are minimal. In addition, the teacher and supervisor face the usual "postmortem" testing problem. Achievement tests are given when it is too late to do anything about a deficient teaching sequence. Continuous, daily-performance-rate records provide a day-to-day record of how each child is progressing with the new materials. By this method, materials can be continuously evaluated while they are being used. Moreover, ineffective materials can be eliminated more rapidly than if just a haphazard guess were being made as to their effectiveness. CLASSROOM DIRECT-RECORDING Two major types of academic recording are in use at present. Perhaps the easiest method of recording performances rate is to set a fixed period of five or ten minutes' duration. The pupils are then given more problems than can be completed in this period. This procedure yields total number of problems completed, total number correct, and, by dividing, (total correct/total time) = the rate of problems correct. For example, a child may complete 85 correct problems in 10 minutes or 85/10 = 8.5 correct per minute. Each day's classroom information is plotted on separate charts for individual pupils. We have found it easier to analyze effects when rate correct and error rates are charted separately, with one chart for each rate. Two examples of these records comprise Figure 2 and 3. Figure 2. Individualized consequence accelerates arithmetic rate correct in a regular classroom. Figure 2 is the arithmetic performance rate (correct rate) of a sixth-grade pupil. Figure 3 is pegboard rate for a child in a preschool classroom for disturbed children. Figure 4 shows that a publicly displayed graph showing rate increases above the previous mid-rate. Thus public display of gains helped accelerate Lewie's multiplication facts. Lewie was one of eleven pupils identified during full classroom record-   Figure 3. Acceleration of peg-board rate using a classroom natural consequence.  Figure 4. Rate correct on basic multiplication facts accelerates after introducing a public improvement graph.  249 Eric Haughton ing of basic multiplication fact performance rates. The improvement graph helped accelerate all protege rates except Connie's. Figure 5 shows that she remained at her usual correct rate of about three facts per minute. Connie required another administrative decision. We decided to try individual tutoring. Ray tutored Connie and produced a marked performance acceleration within five days. This change would have occurred by chance three times out of a trillion. Figure 5. Connie's performance rate did not accelerate with the public improvement graph. Contacts with a tutor accelerated and maintained her performance rate. A second recording procedure requires continuous monitoring all of the time. However, this complicates the computation because the division changes all the time. Using 1, 10, 100, 1,000 minutes simplifies rate computation since you simply move the decimal point. The alternative procedure requires recording the exact time a pupil starts and stops assignments. The previous record is referred to as a time sample whereas this is a continuous, daily record. This procedure requires close supervision if the teacher makes the entries, however, pupil recording simplifies the collection of these data no matter which technique you choose. Performance rate is computed as before, (total correct/total time) = rate correct. These records are made of the pupil's behavior, often in a worksheet or in a workbook. Therefore, because they are written and Administration and Precision Teaching 250 Eric Haughton 251 objectively scored, they are not contaminated by observer bias. Precise records such as these give the teacher accurate information. Summary Educational innovation is in more demand than ever before. Pressures come from an exploding population, rapidly expanding amounts of information, and rising expectations of education's contribution to our society. At the same time that the quantity of education is increasing there is greater emphasis on quality work, the development of mastery, and the production of well-qualified graduates. Traditionally, educators have spoken in global terms. Our literature is full of nonspecific terms such as "understanding," "comprehension," "concept formation," "task orientation," and "perception." Today these terms are being replaced by specific component descriptions and fully developed equations (is-does) describing specific student behavior so a precise definition often prescribes the type of teaching and may in part define educational materials. Precise description of administrator's responses, what he does, also leads us away from global generalities and into a careful, functional analysis. Therefore, administrative decisions can become more and more practical and effectively attained. Although we may conduct precise and refined analyses of administrative decisions and educational sequences, we still lack accurate criterion data. These data must come from pupils and must be sensitive enough to pick up behavioral changes produced by our management and advising procedures. In the past, educational experimenters often attempted to measure effects on pupils by analyzing questionnaires given to pupils and teachers. However, direct recording of the pupil's behavior introduces precise and accurate data, thus reducing teacher bias and impressionistic evaluations. While information such as that plotted in Figure 1 aids classroom remediation of daily pupil performance rates, Figures 2 and 3 let the pupil tell us immediately and directly of classroom changes in his performance. General and special education needs precision. Perhaps the need is greater in general education than in other educational settings for prevention of educational problems. Our responsibility is to educate pupils economically and efficiently. Therefore, we need the most precise behavior specifications and records available. If we believe that the child is always right, then we must have sensitive, valid records of target behaviors. A complete is-does equation consists of the functional description, whereas continuous direct recording will aid the functional analysis of classroom behaviors. Precise teaching that is the product of combining is-does and direct recording gives the administrator the information he needs for making or changing decisions. Accurate continuous data are a firm base for the evaluation of innovations. Since the pupil's performance rate is an accurate, sensitive summary of his work, we have unbiased records of the effects of educational variables. Armed with accurate information based on precision teaching procedures, the educational innovator can substantiate his decisions on data from the ultimate educational arbiter, the pupil. References Carlson, R. O., et al. 1965. Change processes in the public schools. Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon Press. Griffiths, D. C. 1959. Administrative theory. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Lindsley, O. R. 1964. Direct measurement and prosthesis of retarded behavior. J. Educ., 62-81. Meals, D. W. 1967. Heuristic models for systems planning. Phi Delta Kappan 48: 199-203. Miles, M. B. 1964. Innovation in education. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Urwick, L. F. 1965. The Pattern of Management. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 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